Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

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dragoncar
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by dragoncar »

MediumTex wrote:

If I drove a well maintained 10 year old car, had no cable TV, no cell phone, no data plan, no internet service, no computer, cooked most of my own meals, got infrequent haircuts and lived in a small house near my job--i.e., basically lived a 1970s lifestyle--my living expenses would be dramatically lower than they actually are.
Amazingly, I never thought about this lifestyle-inflation aspect of inflation!  Of course, I don't think you can completely discount this because, as we know, happiness tends to focus on relative prosperity.  Therefore, for the general population (not necessarily any specific individual here), they probably do need to spend more and "keep up with the Joneses" in order to maintain the same happiness.  In other words, the average American living a 1970s lifestyle* today would likely be less happy than in the 70's because of the social aspects -- there's a certain amount of alienation involved with not knowing what's happening on the internet, not having a cellphone when your friends would expect to be able to reach you, etc.

*minus the drugs and sex?
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by systemskeptic »

The arguments here seem to be that:

1. Wages keep pace with inflation
2. Cash in a checking account keeps pace with inflation

So if it does not matter whether you are still working, or living on savings, because either way your income/interest rises right along with the rate of general price inflation, what does inflation even mean?  To me this is a pointless way of looking at it which misconstrues reality.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by MediumTex »

systemskeptic wrote: I'm saying, each person can define inflation however they wish.  I was just observing that there are two very different definitions by Marc and yourself for example.  To me, what is the point of comparing the life of someone in 1972 to someone in 2012?  Or for that matter, comparing someone living in poverty in 2012 vs. a king in 1012.  Clearly the person in poverty in 2012 will have a better standard of living than the king in 1012 because of the huge technological gap. 

But to me, this says absolutely nothing about useful about "inflation" or changes in the cost of a person's standard of living.  Yes you could go live a 1872 lifestyle by not choosing to buy iPhones or ever drive a car or fly in a plane.  That may be a useful definition of inflation to you, but it isn't to me.  So any talk of bigger TVs, more fuel efficient cars, etc. has no place in a discussion about inflation (to me).
Here is the useful thing about inflation that it tells us: It helps us understand how much of the changes in our cost of living are due to improvements that we choose to spend more of our money on (larger homes, better cars, faster computers, cooler cell phones, etc), compared to the increases in the prices of things that we tend to purchase consistently through time (food, gas, medical care, etc.).  The latter category is IMHO a better place to look when trying to figure out how much inflation has actually diminished our purchasing power.
Again, if you are claiming a 4% real return, I'm sure there are ways to make it happen by freezing yourself in time even as the rest of the world progresses, but "maintaining purchasing power through time" is supposed to be just that -- through time.
I'm not claiming a 4% real return.  I think that has been pretty well established, even by Marc before he applies his extra management charges and other expenses that go from his left pocket into his right pocket. 
IMHO it means the same amount of money can buy (e.g.) "a middle range transportation device" in any time period -- regardless of whether the actual device is a horse, wagon, car, hover-board, etc.
But it's not that simple.  Sometimes advances are going to be so dramatic that one would expect there to also be a significant increase in price unrelated to currency devaluation.  If there are ever personal aircraft that work like cars, I would expect that such a device would consume a greater proportion of my future income than my car consumes of my current income, mostly because a person aircraft would perform a more valuable service than a car does.  If the use is more valuable, it makes sense that the price would be higher (though this isn't always the case), and it has nothing to do with currency devaluation.
MediumTex wrote: Do you think that I am pretending that I haven't experienced any inflation?  I've gone over this line by line before, but my house payment has gone down about $400 per month because of falling interest rates, my car payments have gone down about $80 per month because of lower auto financing costs, my property taxes have gone down about $40 per month because of a lowered assessed value on my home, my electricity and natural gas bills have gone down $175 per month because of the dramatic fall in the price of natural gas in recent years. 
You also aren't the same age, you aren't living the same lifestyle, making the same purchases, earning the same income from investments or wages, etc.  That is why personal anecdotes really don't have any bearing on the discussion.  Nobody stays the same age or maintains the same lifestyle forever, so trying to measure inflation like that is pointless, IMHO.  What is important is how income is changing vs. expenses over time, with respect to your peers not only in your country but really, worldwide.
My own reduced housing expense as a result of falling mortgage interest rates is hardly anecdotal.  Millions and millions of people have had this experience, and it is at the heart of the Fed's strategy to help stabilize the economy--i.e., put more money into people's pockets through reduced debt servicing costs.

I'm not saying that my experience is equally applicable to everyone, but it's applicable to a LOT of people. 

For a person who has no debt, has significant medical issue and likes to go to rock concerts, he will be experiencing a lot more inflation than I have seen in my situation.  The only point I was making with my own experience was to refute the blanket statement and belief that everyone in the U.S. is experiencing significant inflation because I do not believe that to be true.  Some are experiencing inflation and there is a lot of inflation in certain sectors of the economy, but these conditions are far different from what we saw in the U.S. in the 1970s when the price of EVERYTHING was going up for EVERYONE.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by MediumTex »

systemskeptic wrote: The arguments here seem to be that:

1. Wages keep pace with inflation
2. Cash in a checking account keeps pace with inflation

So if it does not matter whether you are still working, or living on savings, because either way your income/interest rises right along with the rate of general price inflation, what does inflation even mean?  To me this is a pointless way of looking at it which misconstrues reality.
It matters enormously whether you are still working, and here's why:  Most private sector pensions are not adjusted for inflation.  Thus, if you retire with a pension of $3,000 per month, that is what you will receive for the rest of your life.  Inflation wipes these people out.

If you don't have a pension and must rely on checking account-type assets + Social Security, you are still in trouble because although Social Security is indexed to inflation, the interest you will be earning on your checking account will never keep up with inflation, even if it is paying a nice yield.  This is what people in the 1970s experienced--their bank accounts were earning 9%, but their expenses were increasing by 10%, which still meant they were losing purchasing power.

I'm not saying that wages are going to keep up with inflation, but they are going to be lagging at a predictable distance behind inflation.  Thus, if inflation is running at 14%, I would expect to see wages rising by 8-10% annually.  You're still losing purchasing power, but without rising wages there isn't any mechanism for an upward spiral in prices to occur.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by systemskeptic »

MediumTex wrote: I'm not saying that wages are going to keep up with inflation, but they are going to be lagging at a predictable distance behind inflation.  Thus, if inflation is running at 14%, I would expect to see wages rising by 8-10% annually.  You're still losing purchasing power, but without rising wages there isn't any mechanism for an upward spiral in prices to occur.
If you believe wages lag inflation, why do you think the same is not true for interest on checking accounts?

Edit: to be more clear: I already showed the 3 mo tbill yield was 2.28% from 2000-2011.  How do you make this fit with a reported CPI-U of 2.5% over the same time frame?
Last edited by systemskeptic on Tue Feb 19, 2013 5:27 pm, edited 1 time in total.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by MediumTex »

systemskeptic wrote:
MediumTex wrote: I'm not saying that wages are going to keep up with inflation, but they are going to be lagging at a predictable distance behind inflation.  Thus, if inflation is running at 14%, I would expect to see wages rising by 8-10% annually.  You're still losing purchasing power, but without rising wages there isn't any mechanism for an upward spiral in prices to occur.
If you believe wages lag inflation, why do you think the same is not true for interest on checking accounts?
I do.  Read the penultimate paragraph in my post above.

In fact, it is the existence of negative real interest rates in the first place that facilitates an inflationary spiral.  Volcker was only able to finally tame inflation in the early 1980s after raising interest rates to a point higher than the rate of actual inflation, at which point inflation started to go down.

I always assume when a serious bout with inflation begins to get traction there will never be a risk free place to get a positive real return.  That's part of what I find so amusing about TIPS and the casual confidence that the TIPS crowd has in this asset.  It reminds me a bit of what the engineers of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge might have thought before the wind started blowing (4:12):

http://youtu.be/3mclp9QmCGs
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by MediumTex »

systemskeptic wrote: Edit: to be more clear: I already showed the 3 mo tbill yield was 2.28% from 2000-2011.  How do you make this fit with a reported CPI-U of 2.5% over the same time frame?
It's a negative real interest rate environment.  We've been in this environment for years, and that's part of what has fueled gold's dramatic gains.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by systemskeptic »

What is the mechanism for a devaluing currency to experience positive real interest rates, other than a market irrationality that will be later corrected? 

Again, it almost is by definition: either you believe the official inflation numbers or you don't.  Since the U.S. has been the world reserve currency and we have been exporting inflation by running a perpetual trade deficit, why would you believe we were in a positive real rate regime for anything more than a very brief period?

Again, you can claim a real return on checking account interest because it is higher than officially reported CPI-U, but is that really believable?
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by MediumTex »

systemskeptic wrote: What is the mechanism for a devaluing currency to experience positive real interest rates, other than a market irrationality that will be later corrected?
A central bank interest rate peg that is above the actual rate of inflation.  That's what Volcker did.  Once the market figured out that the Fed was serious about taming inflation, inflation started coming down, which in turn caused interest rates to come down as well (though they were still positive in real terms throughout the 1980s and 1990s).
Again, it almost is by definition: either you believe the official inflation numbers or you don't.  Since the U.S. has been the world reserve currency and we have been exporting inflation by running a perpetual trade deficit, why would you believe we were in a positive real rate regime for anything more than a very brief period?
It doesn't matter what I believe or your believe, it's what the market believes.  In the 1980s and 1990s, the market believed that real interest rates were positive, and thus gold did very poorly, even though the was inflation every year from 1982-2000 (the period of the last bear market for gold).  I remember around 1990 I bought a bunch of CDs paying 9%.  That was pretty cool.  Those CDs were definitely paying a positive real interest rate.
Again, you can claim a real return on checking account interest because it is higher than officially reported CPI-U, but is that really believable?
I think you might have misinterpreted something that I wrote above, because the only thing I talked about was negative real interest rates on checking account-type investments in recent years.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by systemskeptic »

MediumTex wrote: A central bank interest rate peg that is above the actual rate of inflation.  That's what Volcker did.  Once the market figured out that the Fed was serious about taming inflation, inflation started coming down, which in turn caused interest rates to come down as well (though they were still positive in real terms throughout the 1980s and 1990s).
...
I remember around 1990 I bought a bunch of CDs paying 9%.  That was pretty cool.  Those CDs were definitely paying a positive real interest rate.
1. Increasing the rates decreased inflationary pressure on the dollar, but where is the evidence it resulted in positive real rates?  Ah yes now we are back to whether one believes in the official numbers or not...  Also to consider is we are talking about 20 years which isn't even a blip in the time scale of currencies.  If the currency is devaluing you will have negative real rates (those holding the currency will absorb the cost), there's just no way around first concepts.  Either it will happen slowly over time, or it will happen all at once.  If it hasn't happened yet it should tell you something about the future (feel free to reference back to this post at a later date  8) )

2.  CPI-U in 1990 was 6.11% meaning your CDs were not nearly as stellar as you think, and that's the official numbers.  I wonder whether a group of individuals can really track something as complex as inflation to the accuracy of 2 decimal places with no error bars?  Pretty funny to think about.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by Pointedstick »

systemskeptic, I'm not sure I understand your point. Are you saying that low-to-moderate inflation is a big problem even when T-bill yields, checking account interest, and wages are roughly keeping pace? Such a situation seems like it's okay for workers and retirees alike. In fact, retirees are probably even better off since they typically own longer-duration bonds that will be return even more, likely beating inflation by a few points.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by MediumTex »

systemskeptic wrote:
MediumTex wrote: A central bank interest rate peg that is above the actual rate of inflation.  That's what Volcker did.  Once the market figured out that the Fed was serious about taming inflation, inflation started coming down, which in turn caused interest rates to come down as well (though they were still positive in real terms throughout the 1980s and 1990s).
...
I remember around 1990 I bought a bunch of CDs paying 9%.  That was pretty cool.  Those CDs were definitely paying a positive real interest rate.
1. Increasing the rates decreased inflationary pressure on the dollar, but where is the evidence it resulted in positive real rates?  Ah yes now we are back to whether one believes in the official numbers or not...
I do believe that the reported inflation figures are more or less correct.  It sounds like you don't.  That's cool.  We can just disagree on that point.
Also to consider is we are talking about 20 years which isn't even a blip in the time scale of currencies.
Our current post-gold convertibility U.S. dollar regime is barely 40 years old and 20 of those years saw positive real interest rates.  That's not a blip. That's 50% of the time.
If the currency is devaluing you will have negative real rates (those holding the currency will absorb the cost), there's just no way around first concepts.  Either it will happen slowly over time, or it will happen all at once.  If it hasn't happened yet it should tell you something about the future (feel free to reference back to this post at a later date  8) )
Negative or positive interest rates are an entirely distinct phenomenon from the policy of controlled demolition of a currency's value that is used by all modern central banks.  Modern currencies will all be experiencing inflation over time in the 3-4% range (if not much higher) because that's what central banks have determined is the optimal rate of inflation to keep money moving through the economy.  Against that backdrop of steady low single digit inflation, interest rates may be positive or negative--the inflation-adjusted interest rate doesn't affect whether the currency is being devalued or not (it always is).

Do you not see the difference in the way gold reacts when real interest rates are negative (see 1971-1981 and 2000-present) and when they are positive (see 1982-2000)?  This is a basic concept, but if you reject the premise that we have been alternating between positive and negative real interest rate environments these last few decades, then how do you explain the two bull markets and one bear market for gold during this period?
2.  CPI-U in 1990 was 6.11% meaning your CDs were not nearly as stellar as you think, and that's the official numbers.
I didn't say they were stellar.  I said it was definitely a positive inflation-adjusted return.
I wonder whether a group of individuals can really track something as complex as inflation to the accuracy of 2 decimal places with no error bars?  Pretty funny to think about.
Why couldn't they?  All we are talking about doing is measuring the change in price levels over a selected time period.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by Thomas Hoog »

I think you just prove HB's:

Rule #1: Your career provides your wealth.

You most likely will make far more money from your business or profession than from your investments. Only very rarely does someone make a large fortune from investments.

Marc's real quest is:
Is there a portfolio (VP) which "make a large fortune from investments".
Answer: yes, but I haven't met it (yet)
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Thomas Hoog wrote: I think you just prove HB's:

Rule #1: Your career provides your wealth.

You most likely will make far more money from your business or profession than from your investments. Only very rarely does someone make a large fortune from investments.

Marc's real quest is:
Is there a portfolio (VP) which "make a large fortune from investments".
Answer: yes, but I haven't met it (yet)
I've seen many. But they always seem to stop working the moment you try to jump on board.  :)

The best investment performance I ever achieved was pure chance that the AAPL shares I happen to buy years ago shot up like a rocket.
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Post by Thomas Hoog »

never been so lucky
best performer is Diageo, which I bought because they sell whisky
Seems without risk for me, if they went bankrupt, I should get some bottle's out of their stock as shareholder.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by MachineGhost »

Thomas Hoog wrote: Marc's real quest is:
Is there a portfolio (VP) which "make a large fortune from investments".
Answer: yes, but I haven't met it (yet)
I suppose it depends on what a "large fortune" is.  Since the most you can make with a disciplined strategy of stock selection is 15%-18% a year on average, I think the question points the way towards leverage.  And specifically, real estate.

20% = 5:1 leverage.
10% = 10:1 leverage.
5% = 15:1 leverage.

Real estate transactions are at a dramatically lower frequency than financial products.  So it gives human beings more time to adjust, adapt and decide.  But one of the major downsides is real estate is a very people-centric business.
Last edited by MachineGhost on Wed Mar 27, 2013 6:47 am, edited 1 time in total.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by Marc De Mesel »

Another data point in support of my true inflation estimate of 5.5% since 2000 in US

Big Mac in the U.S. for years 2004 – 2012 according The Economist:
2004: $2.90
2005: $3.06, 5.5%
2006: $3.10, 1.3%
2007: $3.22, 3.9%
2008: $3.41, 5.9%
2009: $3.57, 4.7%
2010: $3.73, 4.5%
2011: $4.07, 9.1%
2012: $4.45, 9.3%
Inflation since 2004: 5.5%
Inflation since 2008: 6.68%
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Post by Marc De Mesel »

Thomas Hoog wrote: Marc's real quest is:
Is there a portfolio (VP) which "make a large fortune from investments".
Answer: yes, but I haven't met it (yet)
I think bitcoins are a great speculation. High risk, but very high potential reward also.

I've integrated them into my Variable Portfolio, and am very happy I did so:
http://europeanpermanentportfolio.blogs ... folio.html

As you can see I also integrated them into my Permanent Portfolio. Instead of 25% gold, I aim for 20% gold and 5% bitcoin.

Reason being that storing gold outside the country is very difficult to achieve and remains in danger of confiscation if local court orders are unjustly send out to your offshore storage location. Bitcoin solves that. If you need to flee the country, you can't take your gold with you, but you can take your bitcoins with you (brainwallet) passing through all scanners undetected and are impossible to confiscate.

Ofcourse Bitcoin is a new technology and can fail completely so you could say they don't belong in the PP yet. But if bitcoin succeeds it has a high chance to take over gold as 'sound money', becoming THE protector against inflation. In such scenario it will suck away a lot of capital from gold to bitcoin. That could make the Permanent Portfolio, without bitcoin, a failure. Hence why I think it is also prudent to have some bitcoins in your 25% gold allocation.
Last edited by Marc De Mesel on Wed Mar 27, 2013 2:10 am, edited 1 time in total.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by Marc De Mesel »

systemskeptic wrote: I'm saying, each person can define inflation however they wish.  I was just observing that there are two very different definitions by Marc and yourself for example.  To me, what is the point of comparing the life of someone in 1972 to someone in 2012?  Or for that matter, comparing someone living in poverty in 2012 vs. a king in 1012.  Clearly the person in poverty in 2012 will have a better standard of living than the king in 1012 because of the huge technological gap. 

But to me, this says absolutely nothing about useful about "inflation" or changes in the cost of a person's standard of living.  Yes you could go live a 1872 lifestyle by not choosing to buy iPhones or ever drive a car or fly in a plane.  That may be a useful part of the definition of inflation to you, but it isn't to me.  So any talk of bigger TVs, more fuel efficient cars, etc. has no place in a discussion about inflation (to me). 

Again, if you are claiming a 4% real return, I'm sure there are ways to make it happen by freezing yourself in time even as the rest of the world progresses, but "maintaining purchasing power through time" is supposed to be just that -- through time.  IMHO it means the same amount of purchasing power can buy (e.g.) "a middle range transportation device" in any time period -- regardless of whether the actual device is a horse, wagon, car, hover-board, etc.
Amen to that Systemsceptic :)
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by JonathanH »

I see there are not very many fans of Mises or Rothbard in this thread :). They would claim that the proper definition of inflation is an increase in the money supply, but that increases in productivity could keep price inflation low. This definition helps perceive how malinvestments can occur and a boom and bust cycle without prices shooting through the roof. And that new money does not enter the economy uniformally. Lately,it has mostly gone to people who are very credit worthy and can get new loans, finance sector, health and housing, education, gov spending on global war, etc. Okay I'll shut up now :).
I do think the permanent portfolio was designed with this way of thinking in mind as HB had at one point been a study himself. I have not read his books or listened to his podcasts so I can't say how his opinion might have changed over the years.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by Thomas Hoog »

Marc De Mesel wrote:
Thomas Hoog wrote: Marc's real quest is:
Is there a portfolio (VP) which "make a large fortune from investments".
Answer: yes, but I haven't met it (yet)
I think bitcoins are a great speculation. High risk, but very high potential reward also.

I've integrated them into my Variable Portfolio, and am very happy I did so:
http://europeanpermanentportfolio.blogs ... folio.html

As you can see I also integrated them into my Permanent Portfolio. Instead of 25% gold, I aim for 20% gold and 5% bitcoin.

Reason being that storing gold outside the country is very difficult to achieve and remains in danger of confiscation if local court orders are unjustly send out to your offshore storage location. Bitcoin solves that. If you need to flee the country, you can't take your gold with you, but you can take your bitcoins with you (brainwallet) passing through all scanners undetected and are impossible to confiscate.

Ofcourse Bitcoin is a new technology and can fail completely so you could say they don't belong in the PP yet. But if bitcoin succeeds it has a high chance to take over gold as 'sound money', becoming THE protector against inflation. In such scenario it will suck away a lot of capital from gold to bitcoin. That could make the Permanent Portfolio, without bitcoin, a failure. Hence why I think it is also prudent to have some bitcoins in your 25% gold allocation.
yes, I saw the performance of the bitcoins. Reminds me of my own Dutch Tulp mania. Just can't be true. But after the hype it can be an interesting asset.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by D1984 »

Marc De Mesel wrote: Another data point in support of my true inflation estimate of 5.5% since 2000 in US

Big Mac in the U.S. for years 2004 – 2012 according The Economist:
2004: $2.90
2005: $3.06, 5.5%
2006: $3.10, 1.3%
2007: $3.22, 3.9%
2008: $3.41, 5.9%
2009: $3.57, 4.7%
2010: $3.73, 4.5%
2011: $4.07, 9.1%
2012: $4.45, 9.3%
Inflation since 2004: 5.5%
Inflation since 2008: 6.68%
Not to state the obvious, but you do realize one item, in one category of expenditure, doesn't really prove much of anything? I mean, even if someone ate fast food 3X a day, 7 days a week (which is not very likely and obviously not healthy...definitely not something I recommend) they might eat at McDonald's for maybe 1/3rd of those meals. Perhaps one half of the time at McDs they'd be ordering Big Macs and the rest of the time they'd order something else. So even if they are relatively poor and food makes up 20% of their household expenditures (for a middle class person it would be even less), they'd only be spending a little over 3% of their total income on Big Macs (100% of what they spend x 20% of those expenditures on fast food x 33.33% of the fast food expenditures on Mickey Ds x 50% of the time they order a Big Mac when at McDs). Housing and healthcare are two of the biggest expenditures for households and generally dwarf food spending as a % of income.
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by MediumTex »

It seems to me that when it comes to inflation, it is often a type of Rorschach test that tells you more about the observer than it does about that objective underlying economic conditions.

If nicer stuff with more features costs more than similar stuff in the past that wasn't as nice and didn't have as many features, I don't see how we can blame currency devaluation for that price differential.

The Fed is very clear that they target an inflation rate in the 3-4% range because they believe that this rate of inflation will provide the ideal velocity of money through the economy.  When people start talking about inflation being significantly higher than this 3-4% range when people's wages are not rising and they are not taking on new credit in the aggregate, it defies logic to me.  How can prices across the whole economy be rising faster than consumers' ability to pay those higher prices?

In the 1970s, wages rose dramatically and it facilitated dramatic price increases because people had more dollars to spend.  Today wages are not rising and I don't see them rising dramatically any time soon, and thus I don't see inflation rising dramatically either.
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MachineGhost
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by MachineGhost »

MediumTex wrote: In the 1970s, wages rose dramatically and it facilitated dramatic price increases because people had more dollars to spend.  Today wages are not rising and I don't see them rising dramatically any time soon, and thus I don't see inflation rising dramatically either.
Just because the general price level is not increasing because unions lack the power to demand real wage increases in a wage-price spiral as they did in the 1970's, does not mean people are not getting raped by inflation.  Unions did not just demand real wage increases out of nowhere without there being underlying inflation.  In fact, real wages have not increased since that same 1970's while inflation has been on the march.  So who is the patsy?
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Re: Chances of losing (and winning!) are close to zero.

Post by rocketdog »

MediumTex wrote:The Fed is very clear that they target an inflation rate in the 3-4% range because they believe that this rate of inflation will provide the ideal velocity of money through the economy.
I heard somewhere that the average rate of inflation over the past 20 years or so has been 4.4% annually. 
The whole aim of practical politics is to keep the populace alarmed (and hence clamorous to be led to safety) by menacing it with an endless series of hobgoblins, all of them imaginary.
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